Keeping Score 1998

Endnotes

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1. National Drug Control Strategy, Budget Summary, ONDCP (February1998).

2. National Drug Control Strategy, Budget Summary, ONDCP (February1998).

3. Preliminary Results from the 1997 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, SAMHSA (August1998).

4. Estimates calculated by taking the average yearly increase in marijuana use between 1992 and 1997. Data from Preliminary Results from the 1997 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, SAMHSA (August 1998).

5. Foster Care: Parental Drug Abuse has Alarming Impact on Young Children.GAO, 1994.

6. Personal communication with Laura Fieg of the Department of Health and Human Services.

7. Uniform Crime Reports, FBI, unpublished data (1988-1997).

8. Women in Prison, BJS (1994).

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid.

11. Projections are based on smoking trends in past year use from Monitoring the Future unpublished data, NIDA (1993-1997). Projections calculated by computing the yearly average median difference in past year smoking between1993 and 1997. The average median difference was computed separately for boys and girls. The average yearly difference was added to 1997 rates to project 2000 rates.

10th grade past year use:

          Girls  Boys     1993   47%   54%     1994   62%   66%     1995   64%   63%     1996   65%   66%     1997   65%   66%     1998   69%   67%     1999   73%   72%     2000   78%   76%     2001   82%   81%     2002   87%   85%     2003   91%   90%mean difference 4.5%   3.0%

12. Monitoring the Future, unpublished data (1991-1997).

13. Monitoring the Future: questionnaire and responses from the nation's high school seniors, NIDA (1975-1997).

14. Monitoring the Future, unpublished data (1991-1997).

15. Americans Look at the Drug Problem, Peter D. Hart Research Associates (1995).

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

21. "Partnership Attitude Tracking Study", unpublished data, Partnership for a Drug-Free America, (April, 1998).

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Preliminary Results from the 1997 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, SAMHSA (August1998).

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid.

27. Ibid.

28. "Addicted to Nicotine: A National Research Forum." (Conference Proceedings). NIDA (1998).

29. "Addicted to Nicotine: A National Research Forum." (Conference Proceedings). NIDA (1998).

30. Neil E. Grunberg, "Smoking, Eating, Stress, and Drug Use: SexDifferences." In Cora Lee Wetherington, Ph.D. and Adele B. Roman, (Eds.),Drug Addiction Research and the Health of Women. U.S. Departmentof Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, May 1998.

31. Jane E. Brody, "A Fatal Shift in Cancer's Gender Gap." The New York Times, May 12, 1998.

32. Substance Abuse and the American Women, Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (June 1996).

33. "Tobacco use among high school students United States,1997." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Morbidity andMortality Weekly Report, Vol. 47), April 3, 1998.

34. Year-End Preliminary Estimates from the 1996 Drug Abuse Warning Network, SAMHSA (November 1997).

35. Year-End Preliminary Estimates from the 1996 Drug Abuse Warning Network, SAMHSA (November 1997).

36. H. A. Pincus, T. L. Tanielian, S. C. Marcus, M. Olfson, D. A. Zarin, J. Thompson and J. M. Zito, "Prescribing Trends in Psychotropic Medications:Primary Care, Psychiatry and Other Medical Specialties." JAMA, 279(7), 526-531, 1998.

37. Monitoring the Future, unpublished data (1991-1997).

38. Ibid.

39. Ibid.

40. Projections are based on smoking trends in past year use (Monitoring the Future unpublished data, (1993-1997). Projections calculated by computing the yearly average median difference in past year smoking between 1993 and1997. The average median difference was computed separately for boys andgirls. The average yearly difference was added to 1997 rates to project2000 rates.

10th grade past year use:

          Girls   Boys    1993    47%    54%    1994    62%    66%    1995    64%    63%    1996    65%    66%    1997    65%    66%    1998    69%    67%    1999    73%    72%    2000    78%    76%    2001    82%    81%    2002    87%    85%    2003    91%    90%mean difference 4.5%   3.0%

41. Monitoring the Future: questionnaire and responses from the nation's high school seniors, NIDA (1975-1997).

42. Ibid.

43. Henry Wechsler, PhD, "Binge Drinking on College Campuses: A New Look at an Old Problem." Harvard School of Public Health, August1995.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid.

46. Monitoring the Future, unpublished data (1991-1997).

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid.

49. Monitoring the Future: questionnaire and responses from the nation's high school seniors, NIDA (1975-1997).

50. Monitoring the Future, unpublished data (1991-1997).

51. Ibid.

52. "Tobacco use among high school students United States,1997." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 47), April 3, 1998.

53. S. A. French, M. Story, B. Dawnes, M. D. Resnick and R. W. Blum,"Frequent Dieting in Adolescence: Psychosocial and Health Behavior Correlates." Journal of Public Health, 85:695- 701, 1995.

54. Cathy Schoen, Karen Davis, Karen Scott Collins, Linda Greenberg,Catherine Des Roches, and Melinda Abrams, "The Commonwealth Fund Survey of Adolescent Girls." The Commonwealth Fund, November 1997.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Monitoring the Future, unpublished data (1991-1997).

58. Monitoring the Future: questionnaire and responses from the nation's high school seniors, NIDA (1975-1997).

59. Projections based on past year rates of smoking among 12th gradersbetween 1992 and 1997, from Monitoring the Future: questionnaire and responses from the nation's high school seniors, NIDA (1975-1997). Yearly mean differences calculated separately for boys (3.30%) and girls (3.32%). Mean difference added to 1997 rates to make projections.

60. Monitoring the Future, unpublished data (1991-1997).

61. Ibid.

62. Substance Abuse Among Women in the United States. SAMHSA (September1997).

63. "Incidence of Initiation of Cigarette Smoking United States,1965-1996." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 47), October 9, 1998.

64. Bridget F. Grant and Deborah A. Dawson, "Age at Onset of Alcohol Use and its Association with DSM-IV Alcohol Abuse and Dependence: Results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiological Survey." NIAAA, Journal of Substance Abuse, volume 9:103-110, 1997.

65. Bridget F. Grant and Deborah A. Dawson, "Age at Onset of Alcohol Use and its Association with DSM-IV Alcohol Abuse and Dependence: Results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiological Survey." NIAAA, Journal of Substance Abuse, volume 9:103-110, 1997.

66. Denise B. Kandel, Ph.D., Lynn A. Warner, M.P.P., and Ronald Kessler,Ph.D. "The Epidemiology of Substance Use and Dependence Among Women." Drug Addiction Research and the Health of Women, NIDA, May 1998.

67. Lynn Phillips, The Girls Report. New York, NY: The National Council for Research on Women, 1998.

68. Henry Wechsler, PhD, "Binge Drinking on College Campuses: A New Look at an Old Problem." Harvard School of Public Health, August1995.

69. National Pregnancy and Health Survey: Drug Use Among Women Delivering Livebirths: 1992. NIDA (1996).

70. Ibid.

71. Ibid.

72. Booze News, Center for Science in the Public Interest, Vol.10, No. 1, August 1998.

73. Preliminary Results from the 1997 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, SAMHSA (July, 1997).

74. National Pregnancy and Health Survey: Drug Use Among Women Delivering Livebirths: 1992. NIDA (1996).

75. National Pregnancy and Health Survey: Drug Use Among Women Delivering Livebirths: 1992. NIDA (1996).

76. Substance Abuse and the American Women, Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (June 1996).

77. Jane Brody, "A Fatal Shift in Cancer's Gender Gap." New York Times, May 12, 1998.

78. Ibid.

79. Substance Abuse and the American Women, Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (June 1996).

80. Mary R. Haack (Ed.), Drug-Dependent Mothers and Their Children, New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company, 1997.

81. Ibid.

82. "Facts About Alcohol Abuse and Dependence." National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (May 1998).

83. Clare Coles, PhD. "Critical Periods for Prenatal Alcohol Exposure." Alcohol Health and Research World, 18(1):22-29,1994.

84. Karen B. Troccoli, "Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: The Impact on Children's Ability to Learn." National Health /Education Consortium in collaboration with The Children with Alcoholic Foundation, July 1994.

85. Karen B. Troccoli, "Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: The Impact on Children's Ability to Learn." National Health /Education Consortium in collaboration with The Children with Alcoholic Foundation, July 1994.

86. The Economic Costs of Alcohol and Drug Abuse in the United States, 1992, NIDA, National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (May1998).

87. Denise B. Kandel, Ph.D., Lynn A. Warner, M.P.P., and Ronald Kessler, Ph.D. "The Epidemiology of Substance Use and Dependence Among Women." Drug Addiction Research and the Health of Women, NIDA, May 1998.

88. Ibid.

89. Rita Rubin, "Study: Hands off Pregnant Drug Users." USAToday, August 12, 1998.

90. Rita Rubin, "Study: Hands off Pregnant Drug Users." USAToday, August 12, 1998.

91. Rita Rubin, "Study: Hands off Pregnant Drug Users." USAToday, August 12, 1998.

92. Frank J. Murray, "Child-abuse Rap allowed for Crack use in Pregnancy." The Washington Times, May 27, 1998.

93. "Violence Against Women." Department of Health and Human Services Fact Sheet (March 1994).

94. "Drugs and Alcohol." Statistics Packet: 3rd Edition, National Clearinghouse for the Defense of Battered Women, February 1994.

95. Daniel Brookoff, "Drug Use and Domestic Violence." National Institute of Justice Research in Progress Seminar Series (1996).

96. Daniel Brookoff, "Drug Use and Domestic Violence." National Institute of Justice Research in Progress Seminar Series (1996).

97. Bonnie S. Dansky, Ph.D., Michael E. Saladin, Ph.D., Kathleen T. Brady, M.D., Ph.D., Dean G. Kilpatrick, Ph.D., and Heidi S. Resnik, Ph.D. "Prevalenceof Victimization and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Women with SubstanceUse Disorders: Comparison of Telephone and In-Person Assessment Samples." The International Journal of Addictions, 30(9):1079-1099, 1995.

98. Denise Paone, Ed.D., Wendy Chavkin, M.D., M.P.H., Ilene Willets, Ph.D., Patricia Friedman, M.S., and Don Des Jarlais, Ph.D., "The Impact of Sexual Abuse: Implications for Drug Treatment." Journal of Women'sHeath, 1(2):149-153, 1992.

99. Dean G. Kirkpatrick, Ph.D., Heidi S. Resnick, Ph.D., Benjamin E. Saunders, Ph.D., and Connie L. Best, Ph.D., "Victimization, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Substance Use and Abuse Among Women." Drug Addiction Research and the Health of Women, NIDA, May 1998

100. Ibid.

101. Outline of SAMHSA report dated 12/09/93.

102. Bonnie S. Dansky, Ph.D., Michael E. Saladin, Ph.D., Kathleen T. Brady, M.D., Ph.D., Dean G. Kilpatrick, Ph.D., and Heidi S. Resnik, Ph.D." Prevalence of Victimization and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Women with Substance Use Disorders: Comparison of Telephone and In-Person Assessment Samples." The International Journal of Addictions,30(9), 1079-1099, 1995.

103. Substance Abuse Treatment and Domestic Violence. SAMHSA (1997).

104. Barbara Vobejda, "HHS Study Finds Sharp Rise in Child Abuse." The Washington Post, September 19, 1996.

105. Personal communication with Laura Fieg of the Department of Health and Human Services.

106. Foster Care: Parental Drug Abuse Has Alarming Impact on Young Children, General Accounting Office (April 1994). [Projected based on amount reported for 1992].

107. Mary R. Haack (Ed.), Drug-Dependent Mothers and Their Children, New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company, 1997.

108. Ibid.

109. Lisa Newmark and Inessa Chevtchinskaia, "Parental Drug Testing in Child Abuse and Neglect Cases: Major Findings." Washington, D. C.: The Urban Institute, 1995.

110. "Alcohol and Other Drug Survey of State and Child Welfare Agencies." Child Welfare League of America (February 1998).

111. Ibid.

112. Ibid.

113. Ibid.

114. Ibid.

115. Ibid.

116. Women and HIV/AIDS, The U. S. Public Health Service's Office on Women's Health (June 1998).

117. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1997).

118. Ibid.

119. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, in 1997 there were 5,687 new drug-related AIDS cases among women (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, 1997;9(No.2):12.) The Agency for Health Care Policy Research estimates that the average cost of healthcare for an HIV case for one year, not including the cost of proteaseinhibitors (Hellinger, Fred J. "Forecasting the Medical Care Costs of the HIV Epidemic: 1991-1994." Rockville, MD: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, 1995.)

(5,687) x ($5,150) = $29,288,050

120. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 60,014 drug-related AIDS cases in women were reported through December 1997 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report,1997;9 (No.2):12.) The Agency for Health Care Policy Research estimates that a single AIDS case has a lifetime health care cost averaging $102,000 (Hellinger, Fred J. "Forecasting the Medical Care Costs of the HIV Epidemic: 1991-1994." Rockville, MD: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, 1995.)

(60,014) x ($102,000) = $6,121,428,000

121. Women and HIV/AIDS, The U. S. Public Health Service's Office on Women's Health (June 1998).

122. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1997).

123. Women and HIV/AIDS, The U. S. Public Health Service's Office on Women's Health (June 1998).

124. Sandra G. Boodman, "Progress of HIV Found to be Faster in Women". The Washington Post, August 4, 1998.

125. Women and HIV/AIDS, The U. S. Public Health Service's Office on Women's Health (June 1998).

126. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1997).

127. E. M. Rodriguez, L. M. Mofenson, B. H. Chang et al. "Association of maternal drug use during pregnancy with maternal HIV culture positivity and perinatal HIV transmission." AIDS, 1996, 10:273-282, 1996.

128. E. M. Rodriguez, L. M. Mofenson, B. H. Chang et al. "Association of maternal drug use during pregnancy with maternal HIV culture positivity and perinatal HIV transmission." AIDS, 1996, 10:273-282, 1996.

129. Uniform Facility Data Set (UFDS), SAMHSA (December 1997).

130. Ibid.

131. Ibid.

132. Vicki Breitbart, Wendy Chavkin, and Paul Wise. "The Accessibility of Drug Treatment for Pregnant Women: A Survey of Programs in Five Cities", American Journal of Public Health, 84(10), 1994.

133. Lauri Cawthon and Laura Schrager, "Substance Abuse, Treatment, and Birth Outcomes for Pregnant and Postpartum Women in Washington State." Olympia, Washington: Department of Social and Health Services, January 1995.

134. "Ohio Family & Children First." Fact Sheet (February1998).

135. "Ohio Family & Children First." Fact Sheet (February 1998).

136. Services Research Outcomes Study, SAMHSA (September 1998).

137. Ibid.

138. National Treatment Improvement Evaluation Study, SAMHSA (1997).

139. Ibid.

140. Shirley D. Coletti, John A. Schinka, Patrick H. Hughes, Nancy L.Hamilton, Carol G. Renard, Donna M. Sicilian, and Robert L. Neri, "Specialized Therapeutic Community Treatment for Chemically Dependent Women and Their Children." In Community as Method: Therapeutic Communities for Special Populations and Special Settings. Ed. George De Leon. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publisher, 1997.

141. Charles Winick and John T. Evans, "A Therapeutic Community Program for Mothers and Their Children." In Community as Method: Therapeutic Communities for Special Populations and Special Settings.Ed. George De Leon. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publisher, 1997.

142. Sally J. Stevens, Naya Arbiter, and Robin McGrath, "Women and Children: Therapeutic Community Substance Abuse Treatment." In Community as Method: Therapeutic Communities for Special Populations and Special Settings.Ed. George De Leon. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publisher, 1997.

143. L. Dahlgren and A. Willander, "Are Special Treatment Facilities for Female Alcoholics Needed?: A Controlled 2-year Follow-up Study from a Specialized Female Unit (EWA) Versus a Mixed Male/Female Treatment Facility." Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 13(4):499-504, 1989.

144. 1997 Annual Report on Adult and Juvenile Arrestees, National Institute of Justice (July 1998).

145. Linda A. Teplin, Karen M. Abram, and Gary M. McClelland, "Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders Among Incarcerated Women." Archives of General Psychiatry, 53:505-512, 1996.

146. Comparing Federal and State Prison Inmates, 1991, BJS (September1994).

147. Comparing Federal and State Prison Inmates, 1991, BJS (September1994).

148. Uniform Crime Reports, FBI, unpublished data (1988-1997).

149. Ibid.

150. Ibid.

151. Ibid.

152. Ibid.

153. Ibid.

154. Ibid.

155. Ibid.

156. Ibid.

157. Ibid.

158. 1997 Annual Report on Adult and Juvenile Arrestees, National Institute of Justice (July 1998).

159. Ibid.

160. Ibid.

161. Ibid.

162. Ibid.

163. Ibid.

164. Ibid.

165. Ibid.

166. Women in Prison, BJS (1991).

167. Women in Prison, BJS (1994).

168. Comparing Federal and State Prison Inmates, 1991, BJS (September1994).

169. Ibid.

170. Prisoners in 1997, BJS (August 1998).

171. "Characteristics of Federal Inmates Incarcerated in Federal Bureau of Prisons Facilities Only" (July 27,1998). Fax from Vicki Russellat the Federal Bureau of Prisons (9/18/98).

172. Survey of State Prison Inmates, 1991, BJS (March 1998).

173. Done for Drug Strategies by the Center for Substance Abuse Research,1996.

174. Done for Drug Strategies by the Center for Substance Abuse Research,1996.

175. Women in Prison, BJS (1991).

176. Women in Prison, BJS, (1994).

177. Ibid.

178. Ibid.

179. Vivian B. Brown, "Interview with Maggie Wilmore, Chief of Women and Children's Branch, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment." Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 1995, 27(4):321-323.

180. Vivian B. Brown, "Interview with Maggie Wilmore, Chief of Women and Children's Branch, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment." Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 1995, 27(4):321-323.

181. Figures provided by SAMHSA.

182. Figures provided by SAMHSA.

183. William Rhodes, Ph.D., Stacia Lagenbahn, Ryan Kling and Paul Scheiman, "What America's Users Spend on Illegal Drugs, 1988-1995." Prepared for The Office of National Drug Control Policy, September 29, 1997.

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